Previous studies have indicated that the use of instructional media by faculty members in higher education has been generally minimal. The studies have identified several obstacles that hinder the use of instructional media by faculty members. What conditions will assist faculty members overcome these obstacles and thus facilitate the utilization of instructional media in these institutions? Ely suggested eight conditions identified as facilitating the utilization of technological innovations (such as instructional media) in various cross-cultural and education-related context. Using Ely conditions as a framework, this study examined the presence or non-presence of the conditions in facilitating use of instructional media by faculty members’ at a major Malaysian public university. The findings indicated that in general four of Ely’s eight conditions were present in the university. However, the degree of presence of the conditions varied. The conditions are: 1) Dissatisfaction with the status quo, 2) Commitment by those involved, 3) Knowledge and skills exist, and 4) Leadership is evident. The conditions that were not present are: 1) Rewards and incentives exist for participants, 2) Participation expected and encourage, and 3) Availability of time. However, on the basis of participants’ responses, the presence of condition “availability of resources” was uncertain.
By: Mokhtar Hj. Nawawi, Philip L. Doughty, Donald P. Ely and Barbara A. Yonai
| Background |
| Traditionally, educators have been wary of media and are relatively slow to adopt innovative methods in the teaching-learning process. In general, educators have the reputation of being inherently and universally stubborn when facing change (Corbett, Firestone & Rossman, 1987; Kozma, 1978). In developing nations low rate of instructional media utilization among higher education faculty members has been reported by various researchers (Ajibero, 1985; Al-Saleh, 1985; Al-Sharhan, 1993; Blanco, 1996; Dumba-Safuli, 1992; Groves & Zemel 2000; Hossain, 1989; Lewis & Wall, 1990; Librero, 1981; McNeil, 1988; Mohammed, 1994; Mohd Yusof Hussain, 1986; Piotrowski & Vodanovich, 2000; Rahman, 1993; Spotts, 1999; and Spotts & Bowman, 1993, 1995) This reluctance has been the case despite the evident realization of the potential of using media in various institutions of higher education. In an attempt to address this issue Ely, (1976, 1990a, 1999) proposed a series of environmental conditions that facilitate the utilization of educational innovations (instructional media, in this case) in a variety of education-related contexts especially higher education. Presently there are eight facilitative conditions that are deemed applicable in various context, both North American and non-North American.The eight conditions are deemed necessary to implement change once an innovation (instructional media, in this case) or a new practice has been introduced and adopted (Ely, 1999). These conditions are briefly described in the following paragraphs. |
| CONDITIONS FACILITATING USE OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS |
Dissatisfaction with the status quo This condition states that that there must be a requirement to change, otherwise innovation will seem irrelevant (Ely, 1976, 1993). Ely (1999) described the dissatisfaction as an “emotion that calls for change” (p. 24). According to Ely (1990a) there may be various sources or reasons for this dissatisfaction. Ellsworth (2000) described the source of dissatisfaction may be internal or external. Knowledge and skills exist Ely (1993) asserts, “the people who will ultimately implement any innovation must possess sufficient knowledge and skills to do the job” (p. 56). Thus, it is essential that training courses or workshops be carried out to help faculty members realize the advantage or value of using the technological innovation as well as learn the relevant skills to integrate technology in their classroom. Resources are available This condition requires that appropriate and adequate resources to support the innovation be available and accessible to adopters. Resources are “tools and other relevant materials that are accessible to assist learners to acquire learning objectives” (Ely, 1990a, p. 300) or “those materials and equipment that are necessary to make any innovation work” (Ely, 1990b, p. 32). Time is available Ely (1976) noted that time is a vital element in the total process of educational change. Implementers require it to learn, adapt, integrate, and reflect on what they are doing. Time is necessary for the creation of new materials, opportunities to test them, and practice sessions, and opportunities to work with colleagues or trainers who can assist (Ely, 1990a; 1990b). Rewards or incentives exist for participants Ely (1990b) asserts that innovative ideas related to technological innovation would not be implemented if there were no rewards. Rewards usually refer to something given in recompense for a good deed or for merit (such as using instructional media in class instruction). This reward may be extrinsic, such as higher salaries, more professional opportunities, extra help and more resources, or intrinsic, as in satisfaction for a job well done (Ely, 1993). Participation is expected and encouraged This condition is viewed as crucial because the extent to which potential users participate in the process will influence the extent to which an innovation will be implemented successfully. Ely (1990b) suggests that every potential adopter of technology should be involved in the discussion about its use. This view promotes the notion that more participation may result in greater adoption, support, advocacy, and willingness to help others to do the same. Leadership is evident Ely (1976) emphasizes that leadership is one of the essential conditions for implementation of innovations and must be exercised in an environment that encompasses the other conditions. According to Ely a leader is a person who has “vision, persistence, authority, and charisma to move people to action” (p. 160). Commitment by those who are involved Commitment is that “visible support for an idea or action that facilitates its acceptance by others” (Ely, 1990b, p. 35). This condition is closely related to leadership because a first commitment may come from a chief administrative officer (Ely, 1990a). Since Ely’s (1990b) work was published there have been several studies that employed the eight conditions as a framework for studying implementation of technological innovations in various educational settings in different cultures (Bauder, 1993; Ely, 1990a, 1990b, 1993, 1999; Hajar, 2005; Haryono, 1990; Mahady, 1992; Ravitz, 1999; Stein, 1997; Surry & Ensminger, 2002; Sutherland, 2001; and Varden, 2002). Through these studies, the conditions have been shown to traverse institutional and cultural boundaries. In particular, the studies by Haryono (1990), Stein (1996), and Sutherland (2001) provided empirical evidence of the presence of Ely’s conditions in implementation of technological innovations in university settings. Using Ely’s (1990a, 1999) eight conditions as a framework, this study builds on the findings of previous studies by attempting to identify which of those conditions or others are present in facilitating use of instructional media in higher education context. Objectives of Study The objectives of this study are as follows: To determine the presence or non-presence of Ely’s conditions in facilitating use of instructional media by faculty members’ in a Malaysian university, To explore any other conditions present that was not accounted for in Ely’s conditions. Methodology The population for this study was the 690 full-time faculty members at the main campus of Universiti Putra Malaysia in Serdang, Selangor. Faculty members who were on study leave, sabbatical leave, loaned to other public agencies, or who were teaching part-time were not included. The distribution of faculty members was: Professor (52), Associate Professor (181), and Lecturer (457). The study involved all of the faculty members in the target population. A set of questionnaire was designed and submitted for review by a panel of experts consisting of three faculty members in the School of Education of Syracuse University. In one section, there were a total of forty statements associated with each of the eight conditions. Some of the statements were positively stated, while others were stated negatively with respect to the condition being measured. These statements were developed from operational definitions of the eight conditions as well as research conducted by Ely (1990a, 1990b, 1999), Haryono (1990) and Bauder (1993). Statements related to each of the eight conditions were randomly distributed throughout this section. The faculty members were asked to indicate agreement or disagreement with the statements based on a five-point Likert-type scale with: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Faculty members were also asked an open-ended question to solicit their opinion about other conditions that they think facilitated their use of instructional media in the university. The questionnaire developed was pilot-tested to obtain the views of the pilot test group as to the clarity, structure, and saliency of the questionnaire items in order to make necessary revisions. As a result of the feedback from the pilot study, revisions were made to various sections of the questionnaire. For the pilot test, an internal consistency estimate of reliability was computed for the eight Ely’s conditions scales section using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. The values of the coefficient alpha for the eight Ely’s conditions are shown in Table 1. The values ranged from .71 to .92 each indicating satisfactory reliability. According to Mohd Majid Konting (2000) reliability coefficients greater that .60 are often desired for an instrument to be judged acceptable. Table 1: Results of the Coefficient Alpha for the Eight Ely’s Conditions
In this study, 690 questionnaires were sent to the various faculty members through the campus mail system. In an effort to increase return rates of the questionnaires, the researcher carried out two follow-up mailings and several reminder through electronic mail messages. Out of that 327 questionnaires were returned making a final response rate of 63%. Data collected were coded and summarized for data analysis. Responses for negatively worded statements were reverse coded to ensure consistency in data entry. Data collected in the study were analyzed using Statistical Package Social Science Results Participants’ Characteristic The 327 participants who responded and returned the questionnaire were faculty members from 13 academic faculties of Universiti Putra Malaysia. Twenty one percent of them were from the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies while the least number of participants were from the Faculty of Design and Architecture (1%). A majority of the participants were male faculty members (69%) while the rest were female (31%). Among the participants a majority of them (54%) were between 36 and 45 years old. In terms of academic rank, a majority of them were lecturers (62%) while 31% were Associate Professors and 7% Professors. Most of the participants (71%) had between 9 to 22 years of teaching experience in higher education institutions. Mean Scores for Ely’s Conditions An estimate of faculty members’ perception of the presence of each condition was determined by summing the coded responses for the statements (subscales) associated with that condition. The total score for a particular condition ranged from five, representing a perception of absence, to 25, representing a perception of the highest degree of presence, with 15 as the middle score. Scores that are higher than 15 indicate that there were more faculty members who answered ‘Agree” and “Strongly Agree” than those who answered “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree.” While scores smaller than 15 indicate that they were more faculty members who answered “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” than those who answered “Agree” and Strongly Agree.” Therefore, a total score higher than 15 indicates a particular condition is present in the university, while scores smaller than 15 indicates a particular condition is not present in the university. A middle score of 15 indicates that faculty members’ were undecided as to the presence or non-presence of a condition in the university. Table 2 presents the mean scores and standard deviations of each of Ely’s conditions ordered by mean scores. In general, the following conditions that facilitate the use of instructional media in the university were perceived to be present: a) Dissatisfaction with the status quo (M = 20.48, SD = 2.25), b) Commitment by those who are involved (M = 19.56, SD = 2.72), and c) Knowledge and skills exist (M = 17.05, SD = 3.88). On average, the condition “dissatisfaction with status quo” was perceived to be the most present compared to the other two conditions. Meanwhile, three other conditions were not present in the university. There are: a) Rewards or incentives exist for participants (M = 14.86, SD = 3.14), b) Participation expected and encouraged (M = 14.70, SD = 3.62), and c) Time is available (M = 14.09, SD = 3.92). On average, condition ‘time is available” was perceived to be most lacking in the university. Regarding condition “resources are available” (M = 15.03, SD =3.85), the faculty members were generally undecided as to the presence of the condition in the university. Table 2: Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Faculty Members’ Perception of the Presence of Ely’s Conditions
Note. N = 327 Other Conditions Facilitating Instructional Media Use The open-ended question about other conditions that facilitate instructional media use was answered by 84 of the faculty members (approximately 26%). The responses provided an opportunity for faculty members to indicate other conditions that they perceive as necessary for using instructional media in the university. Similar comments were grouped and given a theme such as “Time availability.” Table 3 shows a summary of the responses to this open-ended question. An examination of the table reveals that responses were generally synonymous with the conditions proposed by Ely (1990a, 1999). The most frequently reported condition was availability of resources, mentioned in 69 of the responses. Representative responses included: a) “Facilities should be easily available,” b) “Facilities are not adequate with increasing number of students,” c) “More hardware needed to rotate among users,” d) “Funding and facilities must be there,” and e) “We need more space and the availability of good facilities to facilitate the use of instructional media in the university.” The next three most reported conditions were: a) availability of training in instructional media use (20 responses), b) availability of support personnel (13 responses), and c) presence of incentives to promote instructional media use (13 responses). Representative responses for availability of training included: a) “Set up center of instructional media for staff to learn new technologies,” b) “Sufficient training programs related to each faculty,” c) “Train or educate more staff to use new technology,” d) “Continuous training exists,” e) “The university should provide/give course on this matter (i.e. instructional media use).” Responses that represented availability of support personnel included: a) “Provide enough support staff trained in instructional media to assist lecturers,” b) “Technical assistant who can help develop the materials used in teaching,” c) “Adequate support staff and facilities,” d) “Must have enough support staff to help lecturer in using the instructional media,” and e) “A full-time staff member in instructional media should be made available at the faculty level to help implementation as well as make consultations when necessary.” Responses representing the presence of incentives included: a) “Acknowledge those who have use instructional media in the university,” b) “Recognize the work in instructional media for promotions,” c) “University should give official recognition for instructional media work,” d) “Recognition such as Master Teacher of the year,” and e) “Give more recognition for ‘better’ teachers (i.e. including those who use instructional media).” Table 3: Frequencies and Percentages of Faculty Members’ Comments about Other Conditions Facilitating Instructional media Use
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| DISCUSSION |
Presence of conditions that facilitated use of instructional media As reported previously, condition “dissatisfaction with status quo” was perceived to be the most present in the university (M = 20.48, SD = 2.25). The findings suggest that faculty members, would like to see changes made to the way instructional media is use in the university and to their current teaching approaches in general. This means that they will see the need to use certain instructional media for a particular class instruction. The presence of the condition is essential because without it “innovations most likely would not have been attempted” (Stein, 1997, p. 205). Spotts (1999) supports this notion by emphasizing that “generally, a faculty member will not consider change unless it is a better way of doing something” (p. 96). However, although the presence of this condition will help sustain implementation of technological innovations after it has been introduced and adopted, most studies based on the eight conditions indicated that this condition was not the most important factor in bringing about implementation (Ely, 1990a, 1999). Condition “commitment by those who are involved” was perceived to be the most present in the university after the condition “dissatisfaction with the status quo” (M = 19.56, SD = 2.72). The findings suggest that faculty members, perceived that commitment to use instructional media in instruction by those involved were present in the university. A detail analysis of the responses indicated that an overwhelming majority of the faculty members reported that they as well as other faculty members and administrative leadership in the university, were committed to the use of instructional media in the university. The findings seem to suggest the presence of “firm and visible evidence that there is endorsement and continuing support for implementation” of instructional media in the university (Ely, 1999, p. 302). As Ely (1990a) noted, in an organization like a university, a technological innovation should not only be supported by just one person, but should be reinforced at several levels of leadership, such as from the Vice-Chancellor, deans, directors and department heads. This is crucial, an innovation that is supported by only one person will fall into disuse once he or she leaves the university (Ellsworth, 2002). Stein (1997), in her study, also described this condition as essential because without it “innovations most likely would not have been attempted” (p. 205). This means that academicians who are in leadership should be the first in giving commitments. This is important in the process of using technology because commitment communicates support (Ely, 1990a). Condition ‘knowledge and skills exist” was perceived to be the third most present in the university (M = 17.05, SD = 3.88) after the conditions “dissatisfaction with the status quo” and “commitment by those who are involved.” The results suggest that faculty members perceived that this condition existed for them to use instructional media in instruction in the university. The presence of this condition is essential to support the felt need to change the way instructional media is use in the university as discussed earlier. Ely (1999) emphasized this condition as one of the most important factors leading to implementation. Without the proper knowledge and skills to use media, some faculty members may be reluctant to do so or perhaps discontinue using a particular media. This is a concern when insufficient training is known to be “one of the most common causes of non-adoption or discontinuance [of an innovation]” (Ellsworth, 2000, p.68). Lewis and Wall (1990) emphasized lack of training as a major obstacle to instructional uses of technologies in colleges and universities. With regard to training, faculty members not only want to know the mechanics on how to operate a particular technology, they also need knowledge and skills to use the technology effectively in teaching. As reported earlier, the mean score for condition ‘leadership is evident” (M = 16.13, SD = 3.59) indicated the presence of the condition as perceived by the faculty members. Generally, the faculty members perceived that leadership to use instructional media existed in the university. The support role of the leadership is critical for innovation change. In the case of the university, strong administrative support from the executive officers such as the vice-chancellor, deans and heads of departments is probably the most important condition necessary for innovation change. As Stein (1997) emphasized, strong leadership is important to implement innovation. This is because they can “help overcome unexpected obstacles, provide encouragement and support and communicate enthusiasm” (p.44).In the context of the university, this is crucial when the research findings point to a lack of guidance for technology use and the unavailability of people in leadership roles to consult when there’s a problem in using technology. In addition, leadership is required to initiate, organize and direct efforts to encourage and obtain participation from the faculty members in the implementation of a particular technology (Ely, 1990a). The results of this study presented the mean score (M = 15.03, SD = 3.85) indicated the degree of presence of condition “resources are available” as perceived by the faculty members. This suggests that in general the faculty members were undecided as to the perceived presence of resources for using instructional media in the university. A closer look at the responses to the individual items for this condition indicated that only a small majority (53%) of the faculty members reported having access to instructional media, and the availability of technical support to use the technology (50%). However, only 44% of them reported the availability of appropriate software to support instruction in the university. Besides that, about 46% of the faculty members indicated that support materials and equipment were insufficient while 59% of them perceived that there are not enough funds to support instructional media use in their teaching. Apparently, these findings suggest that resources for instructional media use are not always readily available in the university. Ely (1990a, 1999), Spotts (1999) and Ellsworth (2000) supported the importance of this condition. Spotts emphasized, “most faculty members will not use equipment or materials unless they are readily available and therefore easy to use” (p.96). Ellsworth elaborated that the availability of resources will not only help faculty members in their teaching but should be equally accessible to assist students to acquire learning objectives. Ellsworth emphasized that unavailability of relevant resources will significantly impede acquisition of student learning objectives. As reported previously, the mean score for condition “rewards or incentives exist for participants” (M = 14.86, SD = 3.14) was among the lowest. A closer look at the individual items for the condition, indicated that about 77% of the faculty members felt the satisfaction for a job well done after having use instructional media in their class, while 59% agreed that the university provided professional opportunities to learn about instructional media use. However, about 53% perceived that the university does not give official recognition for using instructional media, approximately 65% perceived that the university does not provide financial incentives to faculty members participating in instructional media use projects, while about 46% perceived that the university does not provide extra help and more resources to use instructional media. The findings suggest that in general, the faculty members perceived that condition “rewards or incentives for participants” was not present in the university. This is a concern, when Lewis and Wall (1990) indicated, the lack of faculty rewards or incentives can be a pervasive obstacle to technology use in the university. As reported previously, the mean score for condition “participation expected and encouraged” (M = 14.70, SD = 3.62) as perceived by the faculty members was among the lowest. A closer look at the responses indicated that although a majority of faculty members (58%) discussed instructional media implementation issues with other colleagues, only about 38 % reported having discussed implementation issues with the university administration. The results also indicated that fewer than 50% of the faculty members reported having communicated their experiences using instructional media with other faculty members. In addition, most faculty members (68%) reported that they were not involved in decision-making regarding instructional media use while about 37% indicated that they do not have input into decisions about instructional media use in the university. The lack of participation should be a concern when it was confirmed to be an important condition for implementation of innovations in studies based on the eight conditions (Ely, 1999). As Ely (1990b) emphasizes, participation may result in greater adoption, support, advocacy, and willingness to help others use instructional technologies. Ely argued that, in the past innovations were rejected just because individuals were told to use the innovation without prior warning or participation in the decision-making process. How can the university get its faculty members to participate in the implementation of technology? In a way leadership in the university has a crucial role in making this happen. Leadership, for example, is also required to ensure that faculty members are involved in decision making about instructional media use, facilitate faculty members to communicate their experiences in using instructional media with other colleagues, or discuss instructional media implementation issues with university administrators. As indicated previously, the mean score for condition “time is available” (M = 14.09, SD = 3.92) was the lowest. This is reflected by negative responses given by faculty members. Results indicated that a majority of the faculty members did not have enough time to work with colleagues or technical assistants when using instructional media, did not have adequate time to create new materials for their teaching, and did not receive release time or paid time by the university to learn new techniques in instructional media use. However, fewer than 50% of the faculty members reported that they have time to integrate new techniques using instructional technologies in their class while about 41% indicated that the university administration provided time for professional development related to instructional media use. The findings suggest that the faculty members perceived that the condition “time is available” was not present in the university. The perceived lack of availability of time should be of concern because time is a distinct condition that must be available to facilitate use of the technology (Spotts, 1999). Ely (1990a, 1999) emphasized that “time is a vital element in the total process of educational change” (p. 300). As Ely, Spotts (1999) and Ellsworth (2000) noted, faculty members need time to train with new technologies, develop new instructional materials, experiment with and implement new technologies, as well as learn, adapt, and integrate new competencies to support use of instructional media, as well as reflect on its use. |
| CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS |
In general, only four of the conditions facilitating utilization of instructional media in the university were present. The conditions perceived to be present were: (a) dissatisfaction with the status quo, (b) commitment by those who are involved, (c) knowledge and skills exist, and (d) leadership is evident. The degree of presence as perceived by the faculty members varied considerably among the four conditions. The condition with the highest degree of presence was reportedly given to condition “dissatisfaction with the status quo.” The conditions that were lacking or have a low presence were: (a) rewards or incentives exist for participants, (b) participation is expected and encouraged, and (c) time is available. However, faculty members were undecided as to the presence or non-presence of condition “resources are available.” The findings indicate that some of the environmental conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational technology innovations emphasized by Ely (1990a, 1999) were not present in the university. The findings regarding these conditions also address the concern that “each condition seemed to be true for North American Educational institutions, but what about other areas of the World” (Ely,1990b, p. 74). At the very least this study has provided further evidence in addition to the studies by Haryono (1990), Stein (1996), and Sutherland (2001) that the conditions also exist in other university settings, including one higher education institution in Malaysia. In addition, besides the study by Ely (199a, 1990b) that tested the conditions in international settings such as Chile, Indonesia and Peru, this study is evidence that the conditions or some of the conditions exist in a cross-cultural context. The faculty members surveyed reported several additional conditions that they perceived had facilitated use of instructional media in the university. Further analysis of the conditions revealed that all or most of them were synonymous with the original conditions presented by Ely (1990a, 1999). These included availability of resources, training to learn and use technology, incentives to promote technology use, promotion opportunities, time, leadership and commitment. In conclusion, no additional conditions were identified from the survey. The findings about the conditions facilitating use of instructional media should alert university managers that inadequate or low-presence of three of the conditions (i.e. rewards or incentives, participation and time) suggested by Ely may jeopardize the university efforts to enhance teaching and learning through the use of various instructional media. It is suggested that university decision-makers should first assess the presence of the conditions in the university campus. Then appropriate steps should be taken to strengthen the conditions that are already present while taking steps to rectify or improve conditions that are not present within the university in order to facilitate and enhance the use of instructional media by faculty members. |
REFERENCES
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